Breast Cancer - Diagnosis, Treatment Options

Diagnosis of Breast Cancer

With the increased number of breast cancer there has also been increase in the diagnostic tool that can help in identifying the onset of the disease. The diagnostic tools have been listed below:

Mammogram: The first diagnostic tool to identify breast cancer is Mammogram. It is an X-ray of the breast that can show the presence of abnormal growth lumps in the breast area.

Ultra-sonography: Use of high frequency sound waves often identifies whether the lump is filled with liquid or solid for further investigation.

Aspiration: Fine needle is inserted in the lump to take the tissue or liquid out from the lump and then a biopsy is performed to test for carcinoma.

Surgical biopsy: Surgical biopsy removes a small part of lump by  surgery and then the lump is tested for further diagnosis.

Treatment options for breast cancer

Treatment decisions are made by the patient  and her physician, after consideration of the optimal treatment for the stage of cancer, the patient's age and the risks and benefits ascribed to each treatment protocol. Most women with breast cancer will have some type of surgery. Surgery is often combined with other treatment such as radiation therapy, chemotherapy, hormone therapy and/or monoclonal antibody therapy.

Surgery:

Lumpectomy: Surgically removing the tumor and a small margin of healthy tissue around it. In breast cancer, this is often called breast-sparing surgery. This type of surgery may be recommended if the tumor is small and the surgeon believes it will be easy to separate from the tissue around it. British researchers reported that about one fifth of breast cancer patients who choose breast-conserving surgery instead of mastectomy eventually need a reoperation.

Mastectomy:  Surgically removing the breast. Simple mastectomy involves removing the lobules, ducts, fatty tissue, nipple, areola. and some skin. Radical mastectomy means also removing muscle of the chest wall and the lymph nodes in the armpit.

Sentinel node biopsy: One lymph node is surgically removed. If the breast cancer has reached a lymph node it can spread further through the lymphatic system into other parts of the body.

Axillary lymph node dissection: If the sentinel node was found to have cancer cells, the surgeon may recommend removing several nymph nodes in the armpit.

Breast reconstruction surgery: A series of surgical procedures aimed at recreating a breast so that it looks as much as possible like the other breast. This procedure may be carried out at the same time as  a mastectomy. The surgeon may use a breast implant, or tissue from another part of the patient's body.

Radiation therapy: Radiation may be used to destroy cancer cells remaining in the breast, chest wall, or underarm area after surgery, or to reduce the size  of a tumor before surgery.  The ability to target  radiation therapy accurately has increased dramatically over past decades, which has greatly diminished resulting side effects.

Systemic therapy:  Systemic therapy includes chemotherapy and hormone therapy. Adjuvant systemic therapy  is used after visible cancer has been surgically removed in order to kill any undetected tumor cells that may have migrated to other parts of the body. Tumor size, histology, and the presence of cancer in axillary nodes are considered in the decision whether to use adjuvant systemic therapy.

Systemic therapy is also used in treating with advanced breast cancer. In such conditions, removal of most of the cancer by surgery isn't possible, and therefore systemic therapies become the main treatment modality.

Chemotherapy: Research has established that combinations of several drugs are more effective that just one drug alone. If the disease has become resistant to the first-line therapies, which include specific combinations of cyclophosphamide, methotrexate, fluorouracil, doxorubicin, epirubicin, and paclitaxel, about 20 percent to 30 percent of patient's will respond to second-line drugs. Chemotherapy medications for breast cancer include: Paclitaxel, Doxorubicin, Paraplatin, Cyclophosphamide, Epirubicin, Gemcitabine, and Vincristine.

In many cases, chemotherapy medicines are given in combination which means you get two or three different medicines at the same time. These combinations are known as chemotherapy regimens. In early stage breast cancer, standard chemotherapy regimens lower the risk of the cancer coming back. In advanced breast cancer, chemotherapy regimens makes the cancer shrink or disappear in about 30-60 percent of people treated. The standard chemotherapy regimens include:

• Doxorubicin and Docetaxel 
• Doxorubicin and Cyclophosphamide, with or without Paclitexel or Docetaxel
•  Cyclophosphamide, Methotrexate, and 5- fluorouracil 
• Cyclophosphamide, Epirubicin, and  5- fluorouracil 
• 5- fluorouracil, Doxorubicin, and Cyclophosphamide
• Cyclophosphamide, Doxorubicin, and 5- fluorouracil 
• Docetaxel, Doxorubicin and cyclophosphamide.

Risk Factors of Breast Cancer

Research is ongoing to identify the exact cause of breast cancer. Researchers have, however, identified several breast cancer risk factors. A risk factor is something that increases the chance that a person will develop a disease. It isn't a guarantee and doesn't predict a future diagnosis. Risk factors for breast cancer can include:

Family history of breast cancer: Having a mother, sister, or daughter with breast cancer doubles your risk of the disease. While family history can play a role in breast cancer development, women should not subscribe to the popular belief that women without a family history of breast cancer are not at risk. The American Cancer Society estimates that  70 to 80 percent or women with breast cancer do not have a family history that include breast cancer. Women who have previously been diagnosed and treatment for breast are at a greater risk of developing breast cancer again.

Age: As we grow older, our risk of developing breast cancer increases. It is estimated that 80 percent of women diagnosed with breast cancer are 50 or older. This does not mean that younger girls  or women are not at risk. Young women are diagnosed with breast cancer, just much less.

Race: Of all women, Caucasian women are diagnosed more frequently than  women of other race. Though Caucasian women are the most at risk, it is African women who die of the disease the most. Asian, Native American, and Hispanic women have less of a risk.

Alcohol consumption: Women who drink alcohol increase their breast cancer risk and the risk is heightened with the amount of alcohol consumption. Women who drink 2-5 drink a day increase their risk by 1 1/2 when compared to women who don't drink alcohol. One drink a day only slightly elevates a women's risk.

Family planning choices: Women who choose not to have children them after age 30 somewhat increase  their risk of breast cancer.

Genetics: Genetics may play a role in up to 10 percent of women diagnosed with breast cancer. Hereditary breast cancer occur when a mutated gene has been passed down from a parent. The most common genetic mutation is that of the BRCA gene pair, repairing to as 'BRCA1' and 'BRCA2'. These genes are responsible for regulating cell growth  and repairing damaged DNA, but don't properly function if mutated. Those who are found through genetic testing cancer. Other carriers of mutated BRCA genes are at an increased risk of developing breast cancer. Other carriers of mutated BRCA genes are at an increase risk of developing breast cancer. Other gene types have been associated to breast cancer, but not as prevalently  as the BRCA genes.

Breast cancer facts

• Breast cancer is the most common cancer among American women.
• One in every eight women in the US develops breast cancer
• The cause of this cancer are not yet fully known although a number of risk factors have been identified 
• There are many types of breast cancer that differ in their capability of spreading to other body tissue
• Breast cancer is diagnosed with physician and self-examination of the breasts, mammography, ultrasound and biopsy. 
• Treatment of breast cancer depends on the type of cancer and its stage. 

According to American Cancer Society:

• Over 200,000 new cases of invasive breast cancer are diagnosed each year. 
• Nearly 40,000 women are expected to die of breast cancer in 2012.
• There are over 2.5 million breast cancer survivors in the US.
• The recommendations regarding frequency and age when women should get screening mammography differ slightly between different organizations and task forces. 
• Between 40 and 50 years of age, mammograms are recommended every 1 to 2 years. After 50 years of age, yearly mammograms are recommended ( American College of Obstetrics and Gynecology).
•  You should discuss with your health care professional the screening frequency that he or she recommend and what guidelines they follow. 
• Patients with a family history of specific risk factors might have a different screening schedule starting mammograms at an earlier age. 

 

 

 

Diagnosis and Treatment of Piles (hemorrhoids)

Diagnosis

Most individuals who have hemorrhoids discover them in one several ways. They either feel the lump of an external hemorrhoid when they wipe themselves after a bowl movement, note drops of blood in the toilet bowl or on the toilet paper, or feel  a prolapsing hemorrhoid after bowel movements. Several anal pain may occur when an external hemorrhoid thromboses, or a prolapsing internal hemorrhoid becomes gangrenous. Symptoms of anal discomfort as well as itching may occur, but anal conditions other than hemorrhoids are more likely to cause these symptoms than hemorrhoids. Hemorrhoids get a "bum rap" for such symptoms since both hemorrhoids and other anal conditions are common and may occur together. For example, up to 20 percent of individual with hemorrhoids also have anal fissures.

Now by the history of the symptoms, the physician can suspect that hemorrhoids are present or not. Although the physician should try his or her best to identify the hemorrhoids, it is  perhaps more important to exclude other causes of hemorrhoid-like symptoms that require different treatment. These other causes - anal fissures, fistulae, perianal (around the anus) skin diseases, infections, and tumors - can be diagnosed on the basis of a careful examination of the anus and anal canal. If necessary, scrapings of the anus to diagnose infections and biopsies of the perianal  skin to diagnose skin diseases can be done.

External hemorrhoids appear as a bump or dark area surrounding the anus. If the lump is tender, it suggests that the hemorrhoid is thrombosed. Any lumps need to be carefully followed, however, and should not be assumed to be a hemorrhoid since there  are rare cancers of the perianal area that may masquerade as external hemorrhoids. 

The diagnosis of an internal hemorrhoid is easy if the hemorrhoid protrudes from the anus. Although a rectal examination with a gloved finger may uncover an internal hemorrhoid high in the anal canal, the rectal examination is more helpful in excluding rare cancers that begin in the anal canal and adjacent rectum. A more through examination for internal hemorrhoids is done visually using an anoscope . An anoscope is a three-inch long, tapering, metal or clear plastic hollow tube approximately one inch in diameter at its viewing end. The anoscope is lubricated and inserted into the anus, through the anal canal, and into the rectum. As the anoscope is withdrawn, the area of the internal hemorrhoid(s) is well seen. Straining by the patient, as if they are having a bowel movement, can make hemorrhoid(s) more prominent. Anoscopy is a very good way to diagnose anal fissures.

At times, indirect anoscopy can be helpful. Indirect anoscopy uses a special mirror for visualizing a patient's anus while the patient is seated and straining on a toilet. Indirect anoscopy allows the doctor to see the effects of gravity and straining on the anus. For example, the physician can be able to determine if what is prolapsing is a hemorrhoid, rectal lining, a rectal polyp, or the rectum itself [a condition called procidentia in which the rectum turns inside out and protrudes from the anus]. Whether or not hemorrhoids are found, if there has been bleeding, the colon above the rectum needs to be examined to exclude important causes of bleeding other than hemorrhoids. Other causes include, for example, colon cancer, polyps, and colitis ( inflammation of the rectum and/or colon). This examination can be accomplished by either flexible sigmoidoscopy or colonoscopy, procedures that allow the doctor  to examine approximately one-third or the entire colon, respectively.

Treatment options for the piles

In the majority of cases, piles resolve on their own without the need for any treatment. Treatment can help significantly reduce the discomfort and itching that may patients experience. A good doctor will initially recommend some lifestyle changes.

Body weight: If the patients is obese, losing weight may help reduce the incidence and severity of hemorrhoids.

Diet: Piles may be caused by too much straining when doing bowel movements, which is the result of constipation. A change in diet can help keep the stools regular and soft. This involves eating more fiber fruits and vegetables, or even switching your cereal breakfast to bran. Water is the best drink, and the patient may be advised to increase her/his water consumption. Some expert say too much caffeine isn't good.

Surgery: Surgery is used for particularly large piles, or Grades 3 or 4 hemorrhoids. Generally, surgery is used if other procedures were not effective. Sometimes surgery is done on an outpatient basis - the patient goes home after the procedure, or he/she may have to spend the night in hospital. 

Piles (hemorrhoids) - causes and symptoms

What are Piles (hemorrhoids)?

Piles are  hemorrhoids that become inflamed. Hemorrhoids are masses, clumps, cushions of tissue in the anal canal - they are full of blood vessels, support tissue, muscle and elastic fibers. Although hemorrhoids are thought of as unpleasant inflammations, we all have them. It is when the hemorrhoids cushions become too big (inflamed) that problems occur - when this happens they are called piles or pathological hemorrhoids. Put simply,"piles" are the swollen ones that are painful and cause problems, hemorrhoids can refer to the simply the normal structure. However, in most cases these days, the words piles and hemorrhoids are nearly always used interchangeably. Piles can be of various sizes and may be internal or external. Typically, internal piles occur from 2 to 4cm above the opening of the anus. External piles occur on the outside edge of the anus. The internal ones are more common.

Internal hemorrhoids: Internal hemorrhoids lie far enough inside the rectum that you cannot see or feel them. They do not usually hurt because there are few pain-sensing nerves in the rectum. Bleeding may be the only sign that they are there. Sometimes internal hemorrhoids prolapse, or enlarge and protrude outside the anal sphincter. If so, you may be able to see or feel them as moist, pink pads of skin that are pinker than the surrounding area. Prolapsed hemorrhoids may hurt because the anus is dense with pain-sensing nerves. They usually recede into the rectum on their own; if they do not, they can be gently pushed back into place.


External hemorrhoids: External hemorrhoids lie within the anus and are often uncomfortable. If an external hemorrhoids prolapses to the outside (usually in the course of passing a stool), you can see and feel it. Blood colts sometimes form within prolapsed external hemorrhoids, causing an extremely painful condition called a thrombosis. If an external hemorrhoid become thrombosed, it can look rather frightening, turning purple or blue, and could possibly bleed. Despite their appearance, thrombosed hemorrhoids are usually not serious and will resolve themselves in about a week. If the pain is unbearable, the thrombosed hemorrhoid can be removed with surgery, which stops the pain.

Piles (hemorrhoids) facts 

Internal hemorrhoids are clumps of tissue within the anal canal that contain blood vessels, muscle, and elastic fibers. External hemorrhoids are enlarged blood vessels surrounding the anus. Internal hemorrhoids cause problems when they enlarge. The cause of the enlargement is not known. 


Complications of internal hemorrhoids include bleeding, anal itchiness, prolapse, incarceration, and gangrene. Pain is not common. The primary complication of external hemorrhoids is pain because of blood clotting in the hemorrhoidal blood vessels.

When dealing with hemorrhoids, it is important to exclude other diseases of the anus and rectum that may cause similar symptoms like polyps, cancer, and diseases of the skin. Treatment of piles or hemorrhoids include over-the-counter topical medications, sclerotherapy, rubber band ligation, heat coagulation, cryotherapy, anal dilation, doppler ligation, sphincterotomy, and surgical hemorrhoidectomy.

The newest treatment for piles (hemorrhoids) is stapled hemorrhoidectomy.

Oral Cancer/Mouth cancer - Causes, Risk Factors, and Symptoms

What is oral cancer?

Cancer is defined as the uncontrollable growth of cells that invade and cause damage to surrounding tissue. Oral caner appears as a growth or sore in the mouth that does not go away. Oral cancer, which includes cancers of the lips, tongue, cheeks, floor of the mouth, hard and soft palate, sinuses, and pharynx, can be life threatening if not diagnosed and treated early.


Causes 

Mouth cancer occurs when cells on your lips or in your mouth develop changes ( mutations) in their DNA. These mutations allow cancer cells to grow and divide when healthy cells would die. The accumulating mouth cancer cells can form a tumor. With time they may spread to other areas of the mouth and on to other areas of the head and neck or other parts of the body. Mouth cancer most commonly begin in the flat, thin cells that line your lips and the insides of your mouth. Most oral cancers are squamous cell carcinomas. 


It is not clear what causes the mutations in squamous cells that lead to mouth cancer. But doctors have identified factors that increase the risk of mouth cancer.

Mouth cancer is a general term that applies to cancer that occur on the lips and throughout the mouth. More-specific terms for these for these types of cancer include:

• Cancer that affects in the inside of the cheeks ( buccal mucosa cancer) 
• Lip cancer 
• Gum cancer 
• Roof of mouth cancer
• Salivary gland cancer 
• Tongue cancer 
• Floor of mouth cancer

Risk Factors

Exactly what triggers the changes in DNA that lead to mouth cancer and why only a small number of people mouth cancer is still uncertain.
However known risk factors include:

Smoking and alcohol: The two leading causes of mouth cancer are smoking cigarettes or other tobacco products and drinking too much alcohol. Both of these substances are carcinogenic, which means they contain chemicals that can damage the DNA in cells and lead to cancer. The risk of mouth cancer increases significantly in somebody who is both a heavy smoker and heavy drinker. For example, research has shown that if you smoke 40 cigarettes a day, but do not drink alcohol, you are five times more likely to develop mouth cancer than someone who doesn't drink or smoke.

If you don't smoke, but drink an  average of 30 pints a week, your risk increases by a factor of five. If you smoke more than 40 cigarettes in a day and you drink an average of 30 pints a week, you are 38 times more likely to develop mouth cancer.

Betel nuts: Betel nuts are mildly addictive seeds taken from the betel  palm tree, and are widely used in many southeast Asian ethnic communities such as Sri Lanka and India.  They have a stimulant similar to coffee. Betel nuts also have a carcinogenic effect, which can increase the risk of mouth cancer. This risk is made worse  as many people enjoy chewing betel nuts along with tobacco. Due to the tradition of using betel nuts, rates of mouth cancer are much higher in ethnic India and Sri Lankan communities than in the population at large.

Sun: Cancer of the lip can be caused by exposure to the sun. Using a lotion or lip balm that a sunscreen can reduce the risk. Wearing a hat with  a brim can also block the sun's harmful rays. The risk of cancer of the lip increases if the person also smokes.

Human papilloma virus (HPV): The human papilloma virus (HPV) is the name of a family of viruses that effect the skin and moist membranes that line your body, such as those in your cervix, anus, mouth and throat. You can contract a HPV infection by having sexual contact with a person already infected - you don't have full sex; just close skin-to-skin contact. 

Infection with some types of HPV can cause abnormal tissue growth and other changes to the cells, which can lead to the development of cervical cancer. There are evidence that some types of HPV infection could also cause abnormal tissue growth inside the mouth, triggering some cases of mouth cancer.

It is thought HPV infection is the probable cause of mouth cancer in young people who have few or none of the expected risk factors.

Diet: There is evidence that  a diet high in red meat, processed food and fried food can increase your risk of developing mouth cancer.

Poor oral hygiene: Poor oral hygiene, such as having tooth decay, gum disease, not brushing your teeth regularly and having ill-fitted dentures (false teeth) can increase your risk of mouth cancer.

Qat: Qat is a green-leafed plant found in Africa and southern Arabia. There is a long tradition in many countries of chewing qat as it has a mild stimulant effect. In England, the use of qat is usually limited to people of Somalian, Ethiopian and Yemeni origin. 

Symptoms 

Signs and symptoms of mouth cancer may include:

• A sore that does not heal 
• A lump or thickening of the skin or  lining of your mouth 
• Loose teeth
• Poorly fitting dentures 
• Tongue pain 
• Jaw pain or stiffness 
• Difficult or painful chewing 
• Difficult or pain swallowing 
• Sore throat 
• Feeling that something is caught in your throat.

Health Benefits of a Good Night's Sleep

A good night's sleep is one of life's real pleasures, and unfortunately a luxury that too few people enjoy on a regular basis. The average adult in the UK has around six hours sleep a night and over 30 % or people regularly battle insomnia or other sleep disorders.

There are lots of health benefits of a good night's sleep. Below have been listed some important health benefits of a good night's sleep.

Keeps your heart healthy: Heart attacks and strokes are more common during the early morning hours. This facts may be  explained by the  way sleep interacts with the blood vessels. Lack of sleep has been associated with worsening of blood pressure and cholesterol, all risk factors for heart related diseases. Your heart will be healthier if you get between 7 and 9 hours of sleep each night.

Provides you with better performance and memory: Remember all that last minute cramming you'd do in school, pulling and all-nighter hoping to squeeze in that last fact of figure? Turns out your mom was right when she told you to kill the lights and get some sleep. Sleep relaxes the brain's frontal cortex. This is where critical decision-making is made. REM sleep is where the brain absorbs and processes all the information we've learned . This vital sleep stage aids memory storage and retrieval, and creating and maintaining an easily accessible database. Think of it as the file clerk of the sleep cycle.

Reduces stress: When your body is sleep deficient, it goes into a state of stress. The body's functions are put on high alert which causes an increase in blood pressure and a production of stress hormones. Higher blood pressure increases your risk for heart attacks and strokes. The stress hormones also, unfortunately, make it harder for you to sleep.

Reduces inflammation: The increase in stress hormones raises the level of inflammation in your body, also creating more risk for heart-related conditions, and cancer and diabetes. Inflammation is thought to one of the causes of the deterioration of your body as you age.

Makes you more alert: A good night's sleep makes you feel energized and alert the next day. Being engaged and active not only feels great, it increases your chances for another good night's sleep. When you wake up feeling refreshed, used that energy to get out into the daylight, do active things, and be engaged in your world. You will sleep better the next night and increase your daily energy level.

Sleep may prevent cancer: People working the late shift have a higher risk for breast and colon cancer. Researchers believe this link is caused by differing levels of melatonin  in people who are exposed to light at night. Light exposure reduces the level of melatonin, a hormone that both makes us sleepy and is thought to protect against cancer. Melatonin appears to suppress the growth of tumors. Be sure that your bedroom is dark to help body produce the melatonin it needs.

Aids with weight loss: Researchers have found that people who sleep less than seven hours per night more likely to be overweight or obese. It is thought that the lack of sleep impacts the balance of hormones in the body that affect appetite. The hormones ghrelin and leptin, important for the regulation of appetiet, have been found to be disrupted by lack of sleep. If you are interested in controlling or losing weight, do not forget to pay attention to getting a good night's sleep.

Helps you live longer: Regularly sleeping less than you should is associated with a shorter lifespan, although it is not clear whether little sleep is the cause, or other illnesses . Studies have found people who routinely sleep for fewer than six hours a night have a higher risk of dying sooner than people of a similar age who sleep for seven or eight hours a night.

Helps your body make repairs: Sleep is a time for your body to repair damage caused by stress, ultraviolet rays and other harmful exposures.  Your cells produce more protein while you are sleeping These protein molecules form the building blocks for cells, allowing them to repair damage.

Reduces you risk for depression: Sleep  impacts many of the chemicals in your body, including serotonin. People with a deficiency in serotonin are more likely to suffer from depression. You can help to prevent depression by making sure you are getting the right amount of sleep, between 7 and 9 hours each night.

Help you have better sex: The better rested you are, the better sex you will have, according to researchers. The 2010 sleep in America poll found about 20-30 per cent of men and women felt their family life and sexual relationships had been affected by their sleepiness.

Sleep Apnea

Sleep Apnea

Sleep apnea is a condition in which you stop breathing while asleep. With sleep apnea, your breathing while you are asleep apnea include: obstructive sleep apnea, which as apneic events. The types of sleep apnea can include: obstructive sleep apnea, which is the most common form of sleep apnea; central sleep apnea; and mixed sleep apnea, which combines the two other types. Sleep apnea, it can cause serious health problems. It can increase the risk of stroke, diabetes, obesity, heart attack, heart failure, irregular heartbeat, and high blood pressure. It increases the risk for accidents while walking, or driving, as some people with sleep apnea may fall asleep during those activities.

Central sleep apnea

In central sleep apnea, breathing is disrupted regularly during sleep because of the way the brain functions. It isn't that you can not breathe [ which is true in obstructive sleep apnea]; rather, you not try to breath at all. The brain doesn't tell your muscles to breathe. This types of sleep apnea is usually associated with serious illness, especially an illness in which the lower brainstem -- which controls breathing -- is affected. In infants, central sleep apnea produces pauses in breathing that can last 20 seconds.

Sleep Apnea Facts

• Sleep apnea is defined as a reduction or cessation of breathing during sleep.
• Central sleep apnea is caused by a failure of the brain to activate the muscles of breathing during sleep.
• The three types of sleep apnea are central apnea, obstructive apnea, and a mixture of central and obstructive apnea. 
• Obstructive sleep apnea is caused by the collapse of the airway during sleep. 
• The complications of obstructive sleep apnea include high blood pressure, heart disease, strokes, automobile accidents, and daytime sleepiness as well as difficulty concentrating , thinking and remembering. 
• Obstructive sleep apnea is diagnosed and evaluated by history, physical examination and polysomnography.
• The nonsurgical treatments for obstructive sleep apnea include behavior therapy, medications, dental appliances, continuous positive airway pressure, bi-level positive airway pressure, and auto-titrating continuous positive airway pressure. 
• The surgical treatment for obstructive sleep apnea include nasal surgery, palate implants, uvulopalatopharyngoplasty, tongue reduction surgery, genioglossus advancement, maxillo-mandibular   advancement, tracheostomy, and bariatric surgery.

Causes of Sleep Apnea 

Obstructive sleep apnea occurs when the muscles in the back of your throat relax. These muscles support the soft palate, the triangular piece of tissue hanging from the soft palate, the tonsils, the side walls of the throat and the tongue. When the muscles relax, your airway narrows or closes as you breathe in, and you cannot get an adequate breath in. This may lower the level of oxygen in your blood. Your brain senses this inability to breathe and briefly rouses you from sleep so you can reopen your airway. This awakening is usually so brief that you do not remember it.

You may make a snorting, choking or gasping sound. This pattern can repeat itself five to 30 times or more each hour, all night long. These disruptions impair your ability to reach the desired deep, restful phases of sleep, and you  will probably feel sleepy during your waking hours. People with obstructive sleep apnea may not be aware that their sleep was interrupted. In fact, some people with this type of sleep apnea think they sleep well all night.

Central sleep apnea, which is much less common, occurs when your brain fails to transmit signals to your breathing muscles. You may awaken with shortness of breath or have a difficult time getting to sleep or staying asleep. Like with obstructive sleep apnea, snoring and daytime sleepiness can occur. The most common cause of central sleep apnea is heart failure and, less commonly, a stoke. People with central sleep apnea may be more likely to remember awakening than are people with obstructive sleep apnea.

Symptoms of Obstructive  Sleep Apnea

Obstructive sleep apnea has many well-studied consequences. First, as one would expect, it disrupts sleep. Patients with disrupted sleep cannot concentrate, think, or remember as well during the day. This has been shown to cause more accidents in the work place and while driving. Thus, people with obstructive sleep apnea have a three-fold greater risk of a car accident that the general population. Sleep apnea symptoms at night time include:

• Gasping for air, witnessed apneas, or choking sensation
• Snoring, usually loud and bothersome
• Restless sleep 
• Insomnia 

Sleep apnea also can cause significant and sometimes serious daytime symptoms as a result of insufficient sleep at night, including:

• Fatigue 
• Daytime sleepiness
• Frequent day time naps 
• Headache 
• Irritability
• Sexual dysfunction 
• Mood and personality changes like depression and anxiety               

 It is important to note that the bed partner of individuals with sleep apnea may suffer from poor nighttime sleep and can have some to the same symptoms.                                                                                                                                                               

Kidney Stones - Causes and Symptoms

What is Kidney Stones 

Kidney stone is a hard, crystalline mineral material formed within the kidney or urinary tract. Kidney stones are a common cause of blood in the urine (hematuria) and often severe pain in the abdomen, flank, or groin. Kidney stones are sometimes called renal calculi.

Kidney stones are common five to 10 in 100 people are affected by pain associated with kidney stones at some point in their life. Most people who get  kidney stones for the first time are aged between 20 and 50. You normally have two kidneys, which 'clean' your blood, and filter out water and wast products to make urine. Kidney stones can form when there is an imbalance of salts or minerals in your urine. These minerals form into crystals, which are often too small to notice, and pass harmlessly out of your body. However, over time, they can build up inside your kidney to form a kidney stone. Most kidney stones are made up of calcium salt ( calcium oxalate or calcium phosphate, or both). They can also be made up of other substances, including uric acid, cystine and struvite. They can range in size and may be smooth or jagged in texture.

Causes of Kidney Stones 

Usually men are more likely to get kidney stones than women. About half of people who have had a kidney stone go on to get more within 10 years. In most  people, there is no obvious reason for what causes kidney stones, although you may be more likely to get them if you: 

• Are aged between 30 and 50 
• Have a family history of kidney stones 
• Are taking certain medicines, for example, protease inhibitors ( such as indinavir )and certain diuretics ( such as triamterene
• Are taking too many vitamin C or calcium/vitamin Dsupplements, or antacids 
• Have a condition affecting the shape or structure of your kidney 
• Have a lot of protein or salt in you diet 
• Do not drink enough fluids 
• Have certain conditions like hyperparathyroidism, high blood pressure or Crohn's disease
• Have cystitis - the bacteria that cause this infection can break down the a substance found in urine called urea, which can lead to kidney stones.

Symptoms of Kidney Stones 

While some kidney stones may not produce symptoms ( known as "silent" stones ), people who have kidney stones often report the sudden onset of excruciating, cramping pain in their low back or side, groin, or abdomen.  Changes in body position don't relieve this pain. The abdominal, groin, or back pain typically waxes and wanes in severity, characteristic of colicky pain ( the pain is sometimes referred to as renal colic). It may be so severe that it is often accompanied by nausea and vomiting. The pain has been described by many as the worst pain of their lives, even worse than the pain of childbirth or broken bones. Kidney stones also characteristically cause blood in  the urine. If infection is present in the urinary tract along with the stones, there can/may be fever and chills. Sometimes, symptoms like difficulty urinating, urinary urgency, penile pain, or testicular pain may occur due to kidney stones. 

Sleepwalking - Causes, Symptoms, Diagnosis, Treatment, and Prevention

What is Sleepwalking?

Sleepwalking is a sleep disorder belonging to the parasomnia family. Sleepwalking arise from the slow weave sleep stage in a state of low consciousness and perform activities that are usually performed during a state of full consciousness. These activities can be as benign as sitting up in bed, waking to the bathroom, and cleaning, or as hazardous as cooking, driving, grabbing at hallucinated objects, or even homicide.


Causes 

Sleepwalking has been described in medical literature dating before Hippocrates ( 460 BC-370 BC) is ascribe to her guilt and resulting insanity as a consequence of her involvement in the murder of her father-in -law. Sleepwalking is characterized by a complex behavior ( waking ) occurring while asleep. Occasionally nonsensical taking may occur. The person's eyes are commonly open, but have a characteristic glassy " look right through you" character. This activity most commonly occurs during middle childhood and young  adolescence. Approximately 15 percent of children between 4-12 years of age will experience sleepwalking. Usually, sleepwalking behaviors wane by late adolescence. Approximately 10 percent of all sleepwalkers begin their behavior as teens. It appears that persons with certain inherited genes have an increased tendency toward developing sleepwalking behaviors.

There are 5 stager of sleep. Stages 1, 2,3 and 4 are characterized as non-rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep. Rapid eye movement (REM) sleep is the sleep cycle associated with dreaming as  well as surges of important hormones essential for proper growth and metabolism. Each sleep cycle (Stages 1,2,3,4 and REM) last about 90-100 minutes and repeats throughout the night. The average person experiences four to five complete sleep cycles per night. Sleepwalking characteristically occurs during the first or second sleep cycles, during stages three and four. Due the short time frame involved, sleepwalking tends not to occur during naps. Upon walking the sleepwalking tends not to occur during naps. Upon walking the sleepwalker has no memory of his her behavior.

The sleepwalking activity may include simply sitting up and appearing awake while actually asleep, getting up and walking around, or complex activities like moving furniture, going to the bathroom, and similar activities. Some people even drive a car while actually asleep. The episode can be very brief or can last for 30 minutes or longer than it.

Symptoms

Following are the examples of symptoms of sleepwalking.

• Episodes range from quiet walking around the room to agitated running or attempts to "escape". The person sleepwalking may appear clumsy and dazed in his or her behavior.
• On questioning the person sleepwalking, responses are slow with simple thoughts, contain nonsense phraseology or absent responses. If the person is returned to bed without awakening, they  usually don't remember the event. 
• Typically, the eyes are open with a glassy, staring appearance as the person quietly roams the around the house. They do not, however, walk with their arms extended in front of them as is inaccurately depicted in movies.
• Older children, who may awaken more easily at the end of an episode, often are embarrassed by the behavior. In lieu of walking, some children perform repeated behaviors. 
• Sleepwalking isn't associated with previous sleep problems, sleeping alone in a room or with others, fear of the dark (achluophobia), or anger outbursts. 
• Some studies suggest that children who sleepwalk may have been more restless sleepers between the ages of four and five, and more restless with more frequent awakenings during first year of life. 

 Diagnosis

A person's history usually provides enough information for a doctor to diagnosis sleepwalking. This is particularly true in children. More difficult cases may require a consultation with a sleep specialist. The specialist may recommend overnight sleep test called polysomnography. During this test, various body functions are recorded while the person is sleeping. In rare cases, a brainwave recording may be ordered to rule out seizures.

Treatment 

Some people mistakenly believe that s sleepwalker should not be awakened. It is not dangerous to awaken a sleepwalker, although it is common for the person to be confused or disoriented for a short time when they wake up. Another misconception is that a person cannot be injured  while sleepwalking. Sleepwalkers are more commonly injured when they trip and lose their balance.
Actually, most people do not need any specific  treatment for sleepwalking. Safety measures may be needed to prevent injury. This may include moving objects such as electrical cords or furniture to reduce the chances of tripping and falling. You may need to block off stairways with a gate.
 In some cases, short-acting tranquilizers have been helpful in reducing sleepwalking episodes.

Headache - Causes

Headache:

Headache are extremely common - most of people have a headache at some time in their life. Headache is defined as a pain arising from the head or upper neck of the body.  The pain originates from the tissues and structures that surround the brain itself has no nerves that give rise to the sensation of pain. The periosteum that surround bones; muscles that  encase the skull, sinuses, eyes; and meninges that cover the surface of the brain and spinal cord, arteries, veins, and nerves, all can become inflamed or irritated to cause the pain of a headache. This pain may be a dull ache, sharp, constant, mild, or intense.


Causes of Tension Headache

The cause of  tension headache is not known. WHO ( World Health Organization) estimates that in the developed world, 80 percent of women  and 67 percent of men will experience this type of headache. The most likely cause is contraction of the muscles that cover the skull. When the muscle covering the skull are stressed, they may become inflamed, go into spasm, and cause pain. Common sites include the base of the skull where the trapezius muscles of the neck insert, the temples where muscles that move the jaw are located, and the forehead. There is little research to confirm the exact cause of tension headaches. Tension headaches occur because of physical or emotional stress placed on the body. For example, these stressors can cause the muscles surrounding the skull to clench the teeth and go into spasm. Physical stressors include difficult and prolonged manual labor, or sitting at a desk or computer for long period of time concentrating. Emotional stress may cause tension headaches by causing the muscles surrounding the skull to contract. 

Peptic Ulcer - Causes and Symptoms

Peptic Ulcer 

A peptic ulcer is a break in the inner lining of the esophagus, stomach, or duodenum. A peptic ulcer of the stomach is called a gastric ulcer; of the duodenum, a duodenal ulcer; and of the esophagus, an esophageal ulcer. Peptic ulcers occur when the lining of these organs is corroded by the acidic digestive ( peptic ) juices which are secreted by the cells of the stomach. A peptic ulcer differs  from and erosion because it extends deeper into the lining of the esophagus, stomach, or duodenum and excites more of an inflammatory reaction from the tissues that are eroded. 


This disease is common, affecting millions of Americans yearly. Peptic ulcers are a recurrent problem; even healed ulcers can recur unless treatment is directed at preventing their recurrence. The medical cost of treatment peptic ulcer and its complications runs into billions of dollars annually. Recent medical advances have increased our understanding of ulcer formation. Improved and expended treatment options are available now a days.

Causes of Peptic Ulcer 

No single cause has been found for ulcer. Now it is clear that  an ulcer is the end result of an imbalance between digestive fluids in the stomach and duodenum. Ulcers can be caused by:

• Infection with a type of bacteria called Helicobacter pylori ( H. pylori)  
• Use of painkillers called nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) such as aspirin, naproxen, ibuprofen, and many others available by prescription. Even safety- coated aspirin in powered form can frequently cause ulcers. 
• Excess acid production from gastrinomas, tumors of the acid producing cells of the stomach that increases acid output ( seen in Zollinger-Ellison syndrome) 

Symptoms of Peptic Ulcer 

When symptoms occur, they may include:

• Dark or black stool ( due to bleeding )
• Vomiting blood( that can look like " coffee-grounds")
• Severe pain in the mid to upper  abdomen 
• Weight loss

Heart Attack Risk Factors

 Heart Attack Risk Factors 

Certain factors contribute to the unwanted buildup of fatty deposits that narrows arteries throughout your body, including arteries to your heart. You can improve or eliminate many of these risk factors to reduce your chances of having a first or subsequent heart attack. Heart attack risk factors include:


Age: In men who are 45 or older and women who are 55 older are more likely to have a heart attack than are younger men and women.

Obesity: Being overweight, and especially having a big belly, has been associated with an increased risk of heart attack.

Smoking: Smoking and long-term exposure to secondhand smoke damage the interior walls of arteries including arteries to your heart allowing deposits of cholesterol and other substances to collect and slow blood flow. Smoking can increase the risk of deadly blood clots forming and causing a heart attack.

Hypertension: High blood pressure is a major risk factor for the heart attack, and especially stroke. Hypertension is very common in Americans over age of 55, but is commonly inadequately treated.

High blood cholesterol: Cholesterol is a major part of the deposits that can narrow arteries through your body, including those that supply your heart. A high level of the wrong kind of cholesterol in your blood increases your risk of a heart attack. Low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol (the "bad" cholesterol ) is most likely to narrow arteries. A high level of triglycerides, another type of blood fat related to your diet, also ups your risk of heart attack. However, a high level of high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol ( the "good" cholesterol), which helps the body clean up excess cholesterol, is desirable and lowers your risk of heart attack.

Diabetes: Diabetes is the inability of your body to adequately produce insulin or respond to insulin need properly. Insulin, a hormone secreted by your pancreas, allows your body to use glucose, which is a form foods. Diabetes, especially uncontrolled diabetes, increases your risk of  heart attack.

Lack of physical activity: An inactive lifestyle contributes to high blood cholesterol levels and obesity. People who get regularly aerobic exercise have better cardiovascular fitness, which decreases their overall risk of heart attack. Exercise is also beneficial in lowering high blood pressure. 

Acid Reflux Disease

Acid Reflux Disease 

Acid reflux is a  condition in which stomach acids rise up into the esophagus because the valve that separates the stomach contents from the esophagus is faulty. If acid reflux symptoms happen more than twice a week, you have acid reflux disease, also known as gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD).


Causes of Acid Reflux Disease 

One common cause of acid reflux disease is a stomach abnormality called a hiatal hernia. This occurs when the upper part of the stomach and LES move above the diaphragm,  a muscle that separates your stomach from chest. Normally, the diaphragm helps keep acid in our stomach. If you have a hiatal hernia, acid can move up into your esophagus and cause symptoms of acid reflux disease. Below are some more common causes of  acid reflux disease:

Large meals:  Those who have large meals will usually find that their acid reflux will improve if they cut down portion sizes. Patients who kept a food diary, noting down everything they ate and linking certain foods to incidences of acid reflux, have experienced a reduction in acid reflux.

Pregnancy: More commonly found during the third trimester of a pregnancy. As the growing baby presses on the stomach, contents may back up into the esophagus. Doctors say antacids won't relieve acid reflux caused by pregnancy. Patients find that if they eat smaller meals but eat more meals per day, it helps. In the vast majority of cases the acid reflux will disappear soon after the baby is born.

Peptic ulcers: Peptic ulcers and not enough digestive enzymes in the stomach may slow down the digestive process, causing an accumulation of gastric acids that back up into the esophagus.

Smoking: Smoking also stimulates the production of bile salts from the intestine to the stomach, [making the acids more harmful], and slows down digestion [making stomach pressure last longer because it takes more time to empty].

Alcohol: Patients have commented that quitting alcohol, or cutting down consumption significantly improved their symptoms. 

What is Cancer?

Cancer 


Cancer is a class of diseases characterized by out of control cell growth. There are many different types of cancer, and each is classified by the type of cell that is initially affected. Cancer harm your body when damaged cells divide uncontrollably to form lumps or masses of tissue called tumors [ except in the case of leukemia where cancer prohibits normal blood function by abnormal cell division in the blood stream].  The tumors can grow and interfere with the digestive, nervous, and circulatory systems, and they can release hormones that alter body function. Tumors that stay in one spot and demonstrate limited growth are generally considered to be benign. There are more dangerous, or malignant, tumors form when two things occur:  number one, a cancerous cell manages to move throughout the body using the blood or lymph systems,  destroying healthy tissue in a process called invasion; number two, that cell manages to divide and grow, making new blood vessels to feed itself in a process called angiogenesis. When a tumor successfully spreads to other parts of the body and grows, invading and destroying other healthy tissues, it is said to have metastasized, and the result is a serious condition that is very difficult to treat. 


 Causes of Cancer 

Cancer is ultimately the result of cells that uncontrollably grow and don't die. Normal cells in the body follow an orderly path of growth, division, and death. Programmed cell death is called apoptosis, and when this process breaks down, cancer begins to form. Unlike regular cells, cancer cells don't experience programmatic death and instead continue to grow and divide. This leads to a mass of abnormal cells that grows out control.


The researchers say this discovery is important because cancer mortality is mainly due to metastatic tumors, those that grow from cells that have traveled from their original site to another part of the body. Only 10 percent of cancer deaths are caused by the primary tumors. 

Prevention of Heart Attack

Coronary artery disease is a major risk factor  for heart attack. Below are some very important steps or tips to reduce your risk of heart disease and heart attack:

Don't smoke: Smoking or using tobacco is one of the most significant risk factors for developing heart disease. Chemicals in tobacco can damage your heart and blood vessels, leading to narrow of the arteries. Atherosclerosis can ultimately lead to a  heart attack. When it comes to heart disease prevention, no amount  of smoking is safe. Smokeless tobacco and low-tar and  low-nicotine cigarettes also are risky, as is exposure to secondhand smoke . Please, quit smoking!

Lower your blood pressure: High blood pressure, called hypertension, significantly increases your risk of heart disease and heart attack. To lower blood pressure, try to eat a heart-healthy diet and engage in regular physical activity. Your doctor may prescribe medications to help.

Control your diabetes: Diabetes is a major risk factor for heart disease. If you have diabetes, work with your doctor to control your blood sugar levels.

Improve your cholesterol: If you do not know your cholesterol number then you have to find out.

• High levels of LDL ("bad") cholesterol increase your risk of heart disease.

• High levels of HDL ("good ") cholesterol protect against heart disease. 

• High levels of total cholesterol also increase  your risk of heart disease.

Cholesterol levels can be improved with exercise and  a healthy diet low in unhealthy fats and alcohol.


Reduce stress: Practice a relaxation technique like meditation or yoga, and take time out every day for a few quiet minutes to unwind and appreciate life.

Healthy weight: Obesity and being overweight are major risk factor for a host of diseases, including heart disease and diabetes. Exercise and a healthy diet can help, but some people might want to work with a doctor help them get to a healthy weight.

Exercise: Being active and taking regular exercise will lower your blood pressure by keeping your heart and blood vessels in good condition. Regular exercise can also you lose  weight which will help lower your blood pressure. Low-impact activities like walking, swimming and cycling are recommended.

Prevention of Diabetes Type1

Prevention of Diabetes type 1

Actually there is no way to prevent type 1 diabetes, but ongoing studies are exploring ways to prevent diabetes in who are most likely to develop it. Those who have a parent, brother, sister with type 1 diabetes and are willing to participate in one of these studies should talk with their doctors. They may want to participate in one of these studies should talk with their doctors. They may want to be tested for islet cell antibodies, because if they have these antibodies, they are more likely to get diabetes.

People with type 1 diabetes can help prevent or delay the development of complications by keeping their blood sugar in a target range. They also need regular medical checkups to detect early signs of complications. If complications are treated early, the damage may be stopped, slowed, possibly reversed.

People who have other health problems along with diabetes like high blood pressure or high cholesterol, need to treat those conditions. Not smoking can reduce the risk of complications. Having other health problems can increase the risk for complications from diabetes. People who have diabetes should have a flu shot every year and a pneumococcal vaccine. Usually people need only one dose of the pneumococcal vaccine. But doctors sometimes recommend a second dose for some people, especially if they have a long-term disease. Discuss your doctor about whether you need a second dose. The pneumococcal vaccine helps prevent infections caused by pneumococcal bacteria. People with diabetes if they have heart or kidney disease, are at risk for complications, hospitalization, and death from flu and pneumococcal disease.

Prevention of Brain Cancer

Brain cancer is a tumor or cancerous growth in the brain. A tumor, whether in your brain or elsewhere, is a mass of cells that reproduce themselves in an uncontrolled way. Tumors can be either  benign or malignant. Benign brain tumors are abnormal collections of cells that reproduce slow and usually remain separate from the surrounding normal brain. They grow slowly, don't removed more easily than malignant  tumors. Malignant tumors reproduce and grow quickly. Their borders are hard to distinguish from the normal brain around them. That is why it is hard to remove them completely without damaging the surrounding brain.

Prevention of Brain Cancer 

Avoid exposure to certain environmental agents. For example, vinyl chloride is an established risk factor for brain cancer. Sometimes, areas located near manufacturing and chemical plants emit chemicals into the air. According to the American Cancer Association, therapeutic radiation exposure to the head is considered a major cause of childhood cancer. Children were previously treated with low dose radiation for certain conditions which increased their risk for brain tumor. The American Cancer Society adds that radiation treatment for other cancers may lead to brain tumors because radiation for minor conditions are no longer used in children or adults. 


Eat a healthy diet. Include foods high in Omega-3 fatty acids like fish and lean meats. In addition vegetables and fruits such as beans, broccoli, spinach, apples, oranges  are rich in antioxidants, which work to prevent cancer and a host of other diseases. They are also packed with vitamins to promote healthy brain and body function of certain cancers.

Becoming educated on the history of brain cancer or other diseases in family members can help prevent cancer. Understanding family history of expectancy is almost always extended when cancer is detected in patients early.

Limit your consumption of alcohol. According to the University of Maryland Medical Center, excessive drinking and smoking can lead to certain diseases that may put a person at risk for cancer. Metastic brain tumors being in other parts of the body and spread to the brain through the bloodstream. Excessive drinking can also lead to liver diseases that can also spread to the brain as well.

Visit your doctor regularly. Annual physicals are important, especially if you are experiencing abnormal signs or symptoms. In addition, doctors are trained to search for brain cancer symptoms. The National Institute of Neurological Disorders reports that identifying a brain tumor in the early stages is important to fighting and recovering from brain cancer.  

Diagnons and Treatment of Brain cancer

Diagnosis of Brain Cancer

Brain cancer that originates in the brain is called a primary brain tumor. If a doctor suspects a brain tumor, one of the first steps in getting an accurate diagnosis is through magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). This imaging test gives physicians an extraordinary view of the brain and this is often the only test needed to identify the possible presence of brain tumor. In some limited cases, a CT scan may used. PET scans, which help doctors see the activity of the brain, may help diagnosis primary brain cancer but their use is less certain with a metastatic disease.

Ultimately, it is a brain biopsy that confirms the malignancy and type of brain tumor present.  If tumors are present as shown on an MRI and a person suffers from a type of cancer that is known to metastasize, then a biopsy may not be necessary. However with types of cancer that don't often spread to the brain, a biopsy is a vital diagnostic tool. Primary brain tumors most always require a biopsy. Brain biopsies can be done during times of surgical exploration or open surgery. The sample tissue can be examined in the operating room, allowing the surgeon to make a decision  about whether to proceed with surgical treatment or not. More extensive evaluation of the tumor specimen will also be done by a pathologist. It may take several days to receive results. In some of the cases, a closed biopsy, also called a stereotactic biopsy, is performed when the tumor is located in a region of the brain that is difficult to reach. It is the least invasive type of biopsy, but does carry risk. 


Treatment of Brain Cancer 

A treatment plan is individualized for each brain cancer patient. The treatment plan is constructed by the doctors who specialize in brain cancer, and treatments vary widely depending on the type of cancer, brain location, tumor size, patient age, and patient's general health status. A major part of the plan is also determined by the patient's wishes. The patient should discuss their health care provider about treatment option. 


Surgery, chemotherapy, and radiation therapy are the major treatment categories for most brain cancers. Individual treatment plans often include a combination of these treatments. Surgical therapy attempts to remove all of the tumor cells by cutting the tumor away from normal brain tissue. This surgery is often termed invasive surgery to distinguish it from noninvasive radiosurgery  or radiation therapy described below.

Radiation therapy attempts to destroy tumor cells by using high energy radiation focused onto the tumor to destroy the tumor cells' ability to function and replicate. Radiosurgery is a non-surgical procedure that delivers a  single high dose of precisely targeted radiation using highly focused gamma-ray or x-ray beams that converge on the specific area or areas of the brain where the tumor is located, minimizing the amount of radiation to healthy brain tissue. Equipment used to do radiosargery  varies in its radiation source; a gamma knife uses focused gamma rays, and a liner accelerator uses photons, while heavy-charged particle radiosurgery uses a proton beam.

Chemotherapy: Chemotherapy attempts to destroy tumor cells using chemicals (drugs) that are designed to destroy specific types of cancer cells. There are many chemical agents used; specific drug therapies are numerous, and each regimen is  designed for the specific type of brain cancer and individualized for each patient. For example, bevacizumab ( Avastin) is a drug approved for treatment of glioblastomas. Chemotherapy can be administered intrathecally (by a surgically placed permanent reservoir in the brain), by lumbar puncture, by IV administration, and biodegradable chemically impregnated polymers. All treatments attempt to spare normal brain cells.

Other treatment options can include immunotherapy (immune cells directed to kill certain cancer cell types), steroid to reduce inflammation and brain swelling, and hyperthermia ( heart treatments) . These may be added on to other treatment plans.

Clinical trials [treatment plans designed by scientists and physicians to try new chemicals or treatment methods ob patients] can be another way for patients to obtain treatment specifically for their cancer cell type. Clinical trials are part of the research efforts to produce better treatments for all disease types. Stem cell treatments for brain and brain stem cancers and other conditions can be available because research with patients is ongoing using these potential therapies. The best treatment for brain cancer is designed by the team of cancer specialists in conjunction with the wishes of patients.