Symptoms of Lung Cancer

In the previous post, i wrote about what is lung cancer and its treatment. Today's post contains information about the symptoms of lung cancer. First of all, i would like to state that lung cancer is one of the reasons of death both men and women in the world. Smoking is the principal risk for the development of this type cancer. Passive exposure to tobacco smoke also can cause lung cancer. In the early stage of this cancer, patient may not realize that he is suffering from lung cancer. When they are more advanced stage, can realize. However, i am writing the most common symptoms of lung cancer among the patients. I hope that the following information will help to find whether you have lung cancer.

Symptoms of lung cancer

1. Shortness of breath, wheezing, chest pain.

2. Raspy coughing, sometimes with blood streaked mucus, hacking.

3. Head ache and body pain, intermittent fever.

4.  Fatigue, loss of weight and appetite, difficulty  swallowing.

5. Pain in your shoulder or back, chest or arm.

6. Chronic bronchitis, pneumonia.

7. Harsh sound while breathing.

 So, we should be very careful about the symptoms of lung cancer so that we can identify it in the early stage of the disease.

Stomach Cancer: Causes and Symptoms

Stomach cancer, also known as gastric cancer, is the accumulation of an abnormal (malignant, cancerous) group of cells that form a tumor in any parts of the stomach - in most case, it refers to cancer that starts off in the mucus-producing cells on the lining of the inside of the stomach [adenocarcinoma].

According to WHO (World Health Organization) 800,000 cancer-related deaths are caused by stomach cancer each year globally. It is the fourth most common cancer worldwide, but the second leading cause of cancer-related deaths in the world.

Gastric cancer is more common among males, and people in developing nations compared to industrialized countries, the exception being Japan and South Korea, where the disease is much more common than in the USA, Canada or Europe.

Causes of Stomach Cancer

As with most cancers, researchers do not know yet what causes stomach cancer. Several risk factor have been identified, however. These include:

• alcohol use
• cigarette  smoking 
• diets high in foods that  are preserved by drying, smoking, salting, or pickling 
• diet low in vegetables and fruits 
• exposure to chemicals used in rubber and lead manufacturing 
• family history of stomach cancer 
• gastric atrophy 
• history of Helicobacter  pylori infection 
• being older than 50 years of age 
• previous stomach surgery 

Symptoms of Stomach Cancer

A symptom is something the patient feels and describes, such as a stomachache,  while a sing is something others, including doctors and nurses can detect, such as a rash. There are several symptoms associated with stomach cancer. However, as they also exist in many other much less serious  conditions and illnesses, gastric cancer may be difficult to recognized initially. That is why so many patients are not diagnosed until the disease is already advanced.

 Some of the early stomach cancer symptoms may include:

• A sensation of being very full (and rapidly full) during meals 
• Dysphagia ( swallowing difficulties) 
•  Feeling bloated after meals 
• Frequent burping 
• Heartburn 
• Indigestion that does not go away 
• Stomachache, or pain in the sternum (breastbone) 
• Trapped wind
• Vomiting 

Risk Factors 

A risk factor is a condition, disease, lifestyle,  or situation which increases the risk of developing a disease of conditions. For example, a risk factor for type 2 diabetes is being obese, i.e. obese people have a higher risk of developing diabetes.


The risk factors include:


Smoking: According to the UK's National Health Service, regular long-term smokers have one-and-a-half times the risk of developing stomach cancer compared to lifetime non-smokers

Family history: Having a close relative who has or had stomach cancer. In about 2 percent of stomach cancer cases, patients share a genetic mutation in the E-cadherin gene. People with blood type A also have a higher risk - we inherit our blood type one of our parents.

Diet: People who regularly eat salted fish, salty foods, smoked meats, and pickled vegetables have a higher risk of developing gastric cancer. In Japan and South Korea such food are popular. The World Cancer Research Fund reported that if people in the UK reduced their salt intake to the recommended daily amount, 1 in every 7 stomach cancer cases could be prevented.

Genetic and Hormonal Causes of Breast Cancer, Side Effects of Chemotherapy

Genetic Causes of Breast Cancer

Family history has long been known to be a risk factor for breast cancer. Both maternal and paternal relatives are important. The risk is highest if the affected relative developed breast cancer at a young age, had cancer in both breasts, or if she is a close relative. First-degree relatives like mother, daughter, sister are most important in estimating risk. Several second-degree relatives like grandmother, aunt with breast cancer may also increase the risk. Breast cancer in a male increase the risk for all his close female relatives. Having relatives with both breast and ovarian cancer also increases a women's risk of breast cancer. There is great interest in genes linked to breast cancer. About 5 percent to 10 percent of breast cancers are believed to be hereditary, as a result of mutations, or changes, in certain genes that are passed along in families.

BRCA1and BRCA2 are abnormal genes that , when inherited, markedly increase the risk of breast cancer to a lifetime risk estimated between 40 percent to 85 percent. Women with these abnormal genes also have an increased likelihood of developing ovarian cancer. Women who  have the BRCA1 gene tend to develop breast cancer at an early age.

Testing for these genes is expensive and may not be covered by insurance.

The issues around testing are complicated, and women who are interested in testing should discuss their risk factors with their health care providers.

Hormonal Causes of Breast Cancer

Hormonal influences play a role in the development of breast cancer.

• Women who start their periods at an early age (12 or younger) or experience a late menopause (55 or older) have a slightly risk of developing breast cancer. Conversely, being older at the time of the first menstrual period and early menopause tend to protect one from breast cancer.
• Having a child before 30 years of age may provide some protection, and having no children may increase the risk for developing breast cancer.
• Using oral contraceptive pills means that a women has a slightly increased risk of breast cancer than women who have never used them. This risk appears to decrease and return to normal with time once the pills are stopped.
• A large study conducted by the  Women's Health Initiative showed an increased risk of breast cancer  in postmenopausal women who were on a combination of estrogen and progesterone for several years. Therefore, women who are considering hormone therapy for menopausal symptoms need to discuss the risk versus the benefit with their health-care providers. 

Side Effects of Chemotherapy 

Chemotherapy destroys cancer cells because the medicines target rapidly dividing cells. But normal cells in your blood, mouth, intestinal tract, nails, vagina, and hair also divide rapidly. So chemotherapy affects them, too.

The healthy cells in your body can repair the damage that result from chemotherapy. But cancer cells cannot repair themselves very well.

The side effects you may have from chemotherapy depend on the regimen you are on, the amount of medicine you are getting, the length of treatment, and your general health. The side effects you have may be different from someone else who is on the same regimen.

While your body is recovering from chemotherapy, other medicines can help ease many of the side effects you may have. It is very important to tell your doctor and oncology nurse about any side effects you are having. If medicines are not controlling the side effects, your doctor or nurse can help you find something that works.

Hormone Therapy

Estrogen, a hormone produced by the ovaries, promotes growth of some breast cancers. Women whose breast cancers test positive for estrogen or progesterone receptors can be given hormone therapy to block the side effects of estrogens on the growth of breast cancer cells. Tamoxifen, the most commonly used antiestrogen drug, has been shown to provide a 26 percent annual reduction in recurrence and a 14 percent annual reduction in deaths. Hormone therapy is effective in both postmenopausal and premenopausal patient's whose cancers are positive for steroid hormone receptors.

Breast Cancer - Diagnosis, Treatment Options

Diagnosis of Breast Cancer

With the increased number of breast cancer there has also been increase in the diagnostic tool that can help in identifying the onset of the disease. The diagnostic tools have been listed below:

Mammogram: The first diagnostic tool to identify breast cancer is Mammogram. It is an X-ray of the breast that can show the presence of abnormal growth lumps in the breast area.

Ultra-sonography: Use of high frequency sound waves often identifies whether the lump is filled with liquid or solid for further investigation.

Aspiration: Fine needle is inserted in the lump to take the tissue or liquid out from the lump and then a biopsy is performed to test for carcinoma.

Surgical biopsy: Surgical biopsy removes a small part of lump by  surgery and then the lump is tested for further diagnosis.

Treatment options for breast cancer

Treatment decisions are made by the patient  and her physician, after consideration of the optimal treatment for the stage of cancer, the patient's age and the risks and benefits ascribed to each treatment protocol. Most women with breast cancer will have some type of surgery. Surgery is often combined with other treatment such as radiation therapy, chemotherapy, hormone therapy and/or monoclonal antibody therapy.

Surgery:

Lumpectomy: Surgically removing the tumor and a small margin of healthy tissue around it. In breast cancer, this is often called breast-sparing surgery. This type of surgery may be recommended if the tumor is small and the surgeon believes it will be easy to separate from the tissue around it. British researchers reported that about one fifth of breast cancer patients who choose breast-conserving surgery instead of mastectomy eventually need a reoperation.

Mastectomy:  Surgically removing the breast. Simple mastectomy involves removing the lobules, ducts, fatty tissue, nipple, areola. and some skin. Radical mastectomy means also removing muscle of the chest wall and the lymph nodes in the armpit.

Sentinel node biopsy: One lymph node is surgically removed. If the breast cancer has reached a lymph node it can spread further through the lymphatic system into other parts of the body.

Axillary lymph node dissection: If the sentinel node was found to have cancer cells, the surgeon may recommend removing several nymph nodes in the armpit.

Breast reconstruction surgery: A series of surgical procedures aimed at recreating a breast so that it looks as much as possible like the other breast. This procedure may be carried out at the same time as  a mastectomy. The surgeon may use a breast implant, or tissue from another part of the patient's body.

Radiation therapy: Radiation may be used to destroy cancer cells remaining in the breast, chest wall, or underarm area after surgery, or to reduce the size  of a tumor before surgery.  The ability to target  radiation therapy accurately has increased dramatically over past decades, which has greatly diminished resulting side effects.

Systemic therapy:  Systemic therapy includes chemotherapy and hormone therapy. Adjuvant systemic therapy  is used after visible cancer has been surgically removed in order to kill any undetected tumor cells that may have migrated to other parts of the body. Tumor size, histology, and the presence of cancer in axillary nodes are considered in the decision whether to use adjuvant systemic therapy.

Systemic therapy is also used in treating with advanced breast cancer. In such conditions, removal of most of the cancer by surgery isn't possible, and therefore systemic therapies become the main treatment modality.

Chemotherapy: Research has established that combinations of several drugs are more effective that just one drug alone. If the disease has become resistant to the first-line therapies, which include specific combinations of cyclophosphamide, methotrexate, fluorouracil, doxorubicin, epirubicin, and paclitaxel, about 20 percent to 30 percent of patient's will respond to second-line drugs. Chemotherapy medications for breast cancer include: Paclitaxel, Doxorubicin, Paraplatin, Cyclophosphamide, Epirubicin, Gemcitabine, and Vincristine.

In many cases, chemotherapy medicines are given in combination which means you get two or three different medicines at the same time. These combinations are known as chemotherapy regimens. In early stage breast cancer, standard chemotherapy regimens lower the risk of the cancer coming back. In advanced breast cancer, chemotherapy regimens makes the cancer shrink or disappear in about 30-60 percent of people treated. The standard chemotherapy regimens include:

• Doxorubicin and Docetaxel 
• Doxorubicin and Cyclophosphamide, with or without Paclitexel or Docetaxel
•  Cyclophosphamide, Methotrexate, and 5- fluorouracil 
• Cyclophosphamide, Epirubicin, and  5- fluorouracil 
• 5- fluorouracil, Doxorubicin, and Cyclophosphamide
• Cyclophosphamide, Doxorubicin, and 5- fluorouracil 
• Docetaxel, Doxorubicin and cyclophosphamide.

Risk Factors of Breast Cancer

Research is ongoing to identify the exact cause of breast cancer. Researchers have, however, identified several breast cancer risk factors. A risk factor is something that increases the chance that a person will develop a disease. It isn't a guarantee and doesn't predict a future diagnosis. Risk factors for breast cancer can include:

Family history of breast cancer: Having a mother, sister, or daughter with breast cancer doubles your risk of the disease. While family history can play a role in breast cancer development, women should not subscribe to the popular belief that women without a family history of breast cancer are not at risk. The American Cancer Society estimates that  70 to 80 percent or women with breast cancer do not have a family history that include breast cancer. Women who have previously been diagnosed and treatment for breast are at a greater risk of developing breast cancer again.

Age: As we grow older, our risk of developing breast cancer increases. It is estimated that 80 percent of women diagnosed with breast cancer are 50 or older. This does not mean that younger girls  or women are not at risk. Young women are diagnosed with breast cancer, just much less.

Race: Of all women, Caucasian women are diagnosed more frequently than  women of other race. Though Caucasian women are the most at risk, it is African women who die of the disease the most. Asian, Native American, and Hispanic women have less of a risk.

Alcohol consumption: Women who drink alcohol increase their breast cancer risk and the risk is heightened with the amount of alcohol consumption. Women who drink 2-5 drink a day increase their risk by 1 1/2 when compared to women who don't drink alcohol. One drink a day only slightly elevates a women's risk.

Family planning choices: Women who choose not to have children them after age 30 somewhat increase  their risk of breast cancer.

Genetics: Genetics may play a role in up to 10 percent of women diagnosed with breast cancer. Hereditary breast cancer occur when a mutated gene has been passed down from a parent. The most common genetic mutation is that of the BRCA gene pair, repairing to as 'BRCA1' and 'BRCA2'. These genes are responsible for regulating cell growth  and repairing damaged DNA, but don't properly function if mutated. Those who are found through genetic testing cancer. Other carriers of mutated BRCA genes are at an increased risk of developing breast cancer. Other carriers of mutated BRCA genes are at an increase risk of developing breast cancer. Other gene types have been associated to breast cancer, but not as prevalently  as the BRCA genes.

Breast cancer facts

• Breast cancer is the most common cancer among American women.
• One in every eight women in the US develops breast cancer
• The cause of this cancer are not yet fully known although a number of risk factors have been identified 
• There are many types of breast cancer that differ in their capability of spreading to other body tissue
• Breast cancer is diagnosed with physician and self-examination of the breasts, mammography, ultrasound and biopsy. 
• Treatment of breast cancer depends on the type of cancer and its stage. 

According to American Cancer Society:

• Over 200,000 new cases of invasive breast cancer are diagnosed each year. 
• Nearly 40,000 women are expected to die of breast cancer in 2012.
• There are over 2.5 million breast cancer survivors in the US.
• The recommendations regarding frequency and age when women should get screening mammography differ slightly between different organizations and task forces. 
• Between 40 and 50 years of age, mammograms are recommended every 1 to 2 years. After 50 years of age, yearly mammograms are recommended ( American College of Obstetrics and Gynecology).
•  You should discuss with your health care professional the screening frequency that he or she recommend and what guidelines they follow. 
• Patients with a family history of specific risk factors might have a different screening schedule starting mammograms at an earlier age. 

 

 

 

Oral Cancer/Mouth cancer - Causes, Risk Factors, and Symptoms

What is oral cancer?

Cancer is defined as the uncontrollable growth of cells that invade and cause damage to surrounding tissue. Oral caner appears as a growth or sore in the mouth that does not go away. Oral cancer, which includes cancers of the lips, tongue, cheeks, floor of the mouth, hard and soft palate, sinuses, and pharynx, can be life threatening if not diagnosed and treated early.


Causes 

Mouth cancer occurs when cells on your lips or in your mouth develop changes ( mutations) in their DNA. These mutations allow cancer cells to grow and divide when healthy cells would die. The accumulating mouth cancer cells can form a tumor. With time they may spread to other areas of the mouth and on to other areas of the head and neck or other parts of the body. Mouth cancer most commonly begin in the flat, thin cells that line your lips and the insides of your mouth. Most oral cancers are squamous cell carcinomas. 


It is not clear what causes the mutations in squamous cells that lead to mouth cancer. But doctors have identified factors that increase the risk of mouth cancer.

Mouth cancer is a general term that applies to cancer that occur on the lips and throughout the mouth. More-specific terms for these for these types of cancer include:

• Cancer that affects in the inside of the cheeks ( buccal mucosa cancer) 
• Lip cancer 
• Gum cancer 
• Roof of mouth cancer
• Salivary gland cancer 
• Tongue cancer 
• Floor of mouth cancer

Risk Factors

Exactly what triggers the changes in DNA that lead to mouth cancer and why only a small number of people mouth cancer is still uncertain.
However known risk factors include:

Smoking and alcohol: The two leading causes of mouth cancer are smoking cigarettes or other tobacco products and drinking too much alcohol. Both of these substances are carcinogenic, which means they contain chemicals that can damage the DNA in cells and lead to cancer. The risk of mouth cancer increases significantly in somebody who is both a heavy smoker and heavy drinker. For example, research has shown that if you smoke 40 cigarettes a day, but do not drink alcohol, you are five times more likely to develop mouth cancer than someone who doesn't drink or smoke.

If you don't smoke, but drink an  average of 30 pints a week, your risk increases by a factor of five. If you smoke more than 40 cigarettes in a day and you drink an average of 30 pints a week, you are 38 times more likely to develop mouth cancer.

Betel nuts: Betel nuts are mildly addictive seeds taken from the betel  palm tree, and are widely used in many southeast Asian ethnic communities such as Sri Lanka and India.  They have a stimulant similar to coffee. Betel nuts also have a carcinogenic effect, which can increase the risk of mouth cancer. This risk is made worse  as many people enjoy chewing betel nuts along with tobacco. Due to the tradition of using betel nuts, rates of mouth cancer are much higher in ethnic India and Sri Lankan communities than in the population at large.

Sun: Cancer of the lip can be caused by exposure to the sun. Using a lotion or lip balm that a sunscreen can reduce the risk. Wearing a hat with  a brim can also block the sun's harmful rays. The risk of cancer of the lip increases if the person also smokes.

Human papilloma virus (HPV): The human papilloma virus (HPV) is the name of a family of viruses that effect the skin and moist membranes that line your body, such as those in your cervix, anus, mouth and throat. You can contract a HPV infection by having sexual contact with a person already infected - you don't have full sex; just close skin-to-skin contact. 

Infection with some types of HPV can cause abnormal tissue growth and other changes to the cells, which can lead to the development of cervical cancer. There are evidence that some types of HPV infection could also cause abnormal tissue growth inside the mouth, triggering some cases of mouth cancer.

It is thought HPV infection is the probable cause of mouth cancer in young people who have few or none of the expected risk factors.

Diet: There is evidence that  a diet high in red meat, processed food and fried food can increase your risk of developing mouth cancer.

Poor oral hygiene: Poor oral hygiene, such as having tooth decay, gum disease, not brushing your teeth regularly and having ill-fitted dentures (false teeth) can increase your risk of mouth cancer.

Qat: Qat is a green-leafed plant found in Africa and southern Arabia. There is a long tradition in many countries of chewing qat as it has a mild stimulant effect. In England, the use of qat is usually limited to people of Somalian, Ethiopian and Yemeni origin. 

Symptoms 

Signs and symptoms of mouth cancer may include:

• A sore that does not heal 
• A lump or thickening of the skin or  lining of your mouth 
• Loose teeth
• Poorly fitting dentures 
• Tongue pain 
• Jaw pain or stiffness 
• Difficult or painful chewing 
• Difficult or pain swallowing 
• Sore throat 
• Feeling that something is caught in your throat.

What is Cancer?

Cancer 


Cancer is a class of diseases characterized by out of control cell growth. There are many different types of cancer, and each is classified by the type of cell that is initially affected. Cancer harm your body when damaged cells divide uncontrollably to form lumps or masses of tissue called tumors [ except in the case of leukemia where cancer prohibits normal blood function by abnormal cell division in the blood stream].  The tumors can grow and interfere with the digestive, nervous, and circulatory systems, and they can release hormones that alter body function. Tumors that stay in one spot and demonstrate limited growth are generally considered to be benign. There are more dangerous, or malignant, tumors form when two things occur:  number one, a cancerous cell manages to move throughout the body using the blood or lymph systems,  destroying healthy tissue in a process called invasion; number two, that cell manages to divide and grow, making new blood vessels to feed itself in a process called angiogenesis. When a tumor successfully spreads to other parts of the body and grows, invading and destroying other healthy tissues, it is said to have metastasized, and the result is a serious condition that is very difficult to treat. 


 Causes of Cancer 

Cancer is ultimately the result of cells that uncontrollably grow and don't die. Normal cells in the body follow an orderly path of growth, division, and death. Programmed cell death is called apoptosis, and when this process breaks down, cancer begins to form. Unlike regular cells, cancer cells don't experience programmatic death and instead continue to grow and divide. This leads to a mass of abnormal cells that grows out control.


The researchers say this discovery is important because cancer mortality is mainly due to metastatic tumors, those that grow from cells that have traveled from their original site to another part of the body. Only 10 percent of cancer deaths are caused by the primary tumors. 

Prevention of Brain Cancer

Brain cancer is a tumor or cancerous growth in the brain. A tumor, whether in your brain or elsewhere, is a mass of cells that reproduce themselves in an uncontrolled way. Tumors can be either  benign or malignant. Benign brain tumors are abnormal collections of cells that reproduce slow and usually remain separate from the surrounding normal brain. They grow slowly, don't removed more easily than malignant  tumors. Malignant tumors reproduce and grow quickly. Their borders are hard to distinguish from the normal brain around them. That is why it is hard to remove them completely without damaging the surrounding brain.

Prevention of Brain Cancer 

Avoid exposure to certain environmental agents. For example, vinyl chloride is an established risk factor for brain cancer. Sometimes, areas located near manufacturing and chemical plants emit chemicals into the air. According to the American Cancer Association, therapeutic radiation exposure to the head is considered a major cause of childhood cancer. Children were previously treated with low dose radiation for certain conditions which increased their risk for brain tumor. The American Cancer Society adds that radiation treatment for other cancers may lead to brain tumors because radiation for minor conditions are no longer used in children or adults. 


Eat a healthy diet. Include foods high in Omega-3 fatty acids like fish and lean meats. In addition vegetables and fruits such as beans, broccoli, spinach, apples, oranges  are rich in antioxidants, which work to prevent cancer and a host of other diseases. They are also packed with vitamins to promote healthy brain and body function of certain cancers.

Becoming educated on the history of brain cancer or other diseases in family members can help prevent cancer. Understanding family history of expectancy is almost always extended when cancer is detected in patients early.

Limit your consumption of alcohol. According to the University of Maryland Medical Center, excessive drinking and smoking can lead to certain diseases that may put a person at risk for cancer. Metastic brain tumors being in other parts of the body and spread to the brain through the bloodstream. Excessive drinking can also lead to liver diseases that can also spread to the brain as well.

Visit your doctor regularly. Annual physicals are important, especially if you are experiencing abnormal signs or symptoms. In addition, doctors are trained to search for brain cancer symptoms. The National Institute of Neurological Disorders reports that identifying a brain tumor in the early stages is important to fighting and recovering from brain cancer.  

Diagnons and Treatment of Brain cancer

Diagnosis of Brain Cancer

Brain cancer that originates in the brain is called a primary brain tumor. If a doctor suspects a brain tumor, one of the first steps in getting an accurate diagnosis is through magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). This imaging test gives physicians an extraordinary view of the brain and this is often the only test needed to identify the possible presence of brain tumor. In some limited cases, a CT scan may used. PET scans, which help doctors see the activity of the brain, may help diagnosis primary brain cancer but their use is less certain with a metastatic disease.

Ultimately, it is a brain biopsy that confirms the malignancy and type of brain tumor present.  If tumors are present as shown on an MRI and a person suffers from a type of cancer that is known to metastasize, then a biopsy may not be necessary. However with types of cancer that don't often spread to the brain, a biopsy is a vital diagnostic tool. Primary brain tumors most always require a biopsy. Brain biopsies can be done during times of surgical exploration or open surgery. The sample tissue can be examined in the operating room, allowing the surgeon to make a decision  about whether to proceed with surgical treatment or not. More extensive evaluation of the tumor specimen will also be done by a pathologist. It may take several days to receive results. In some of the cases, a closed biopsy, also called a stereotactic biopsy, is performed when the tumor is located in a region of the brain that is difficult to reach. It is the least invasive type of biopsy, but does carry risk. 


Treatment of Brain Cancer 

A treatment plan is individualized for each brain cancer patient. The treatment plan is constructed by the doctors who specialize in brain cancer, and treatments vary widely depending on the type of cancer, brain location, tumor size, patient age, and patient's general health status. A major part of the plan is also determined by the patient's wishes. The patient should discuss their health care provider about treatment option. 


Surgery, chemotherapy, and radiation therapy are the major treatment categories for most brain cancers. Individual treatment plans often include a combination of these treatments. Surgical therapy attempts to remove all of the tumor cells by cutting the tumor away from normal brain tissue. This surgery is often termed invasive surgery to distinguish it from noninvasive radiosurgery  or radiation therapy described below.

Radiation therapy attempts to destroy tumor cells by using high energy radiation focused onto the tumor to destroy the tumor cells' ability to function and replicate. Radiosurgery is a non-surgical procedure that delivers a  single high dose of precisely targeted radiation using highly focused gamma-ray or x-ray beams that converge on the specific area or areas of the brain where the tumor is located, minimizing the amount of radiation to healthy brain tissue. Equipment used to do radiosargery  varies in its radiation source; a gamma knife uses focused gamma rays, and a liner accelerator uses photons, while heavy-charged particle radiosurgery uses a proton beam.

Chemotherapy: Chemotherapy attempts to destroy tumor cells using chemicals (drugs) that are designed to destroy specific types of cancer cells. There are many chemical agents used; specific drug therapies are numerous, and each regimen is  designed for the specific type of brain cancer and individualized for each patient. For example, bevacizumab ( Avastin) is a drug approved for treatment of glioblastomas. Chemotherapy can be administered intrathecally (by a surgically placed permanent reservoir in the brain), by lumbar puncture, by IV administration, and biodegradable chemically impregnated polymers. All treatments attempt to spare normal brain cells.

Other treatment options can include immunotherapy (immune cells directed to kill certain cancer cell types), steroid to reduce inflammation and brain swelling, and hyperthermia ( heart treatments) . These may be added on to other treatment plans.

Clinical trials [treatment plans designed by scientists and physicians to try new chemicals or treatment methods ob patients] can be another way for patients to obtain treatment specifically for their cancer cell type. Clinical trials are part of the research efforts to produce better treatments for all disease types. Stem cell treatments for brain and brain stem cancers and other conditions can be available because research with patients is ongoing using these potential therapies. The best treatment for brain cancer is designed by the team of cancer specialists in conjunction with the wishes of patients.

Brain Cancer - Facts, Causes, and Symptoms

What is brain cancer?

Brain cancer is a disease of the brain in which cancer cells (malignant)  arise in the brain tissue. Cancer cells grow to form a mass of cancer tissue (tumor)  that interferes with brain functions like muscle control, sensation, memory and other body functions. Tumor composed of cancer cells are called malignant tumors, and those composed of mainly noncancerous cells called benign tumors. Cancer cells that develop from brain tissue are called primary brain tumors while tumors that spread from other body sites to the brain are termed metastatic brain tumors. Statistics suggest that the brain cancer occurs infrequently and is likely to develop in about 22,000 new people per year with about 13,000 deaths as estimated by the NCI (National Cancer Institute).

The Facts on Brain Cancer

• Brain cancer can arise from many different types of brain cells (primary brain cancer) or when cancer cells from another part of the body spread (metastasize) to the brain. 
  

• Causes of this cancer are difficult to prove; avoiding compounds linked to cancer production is advised. 
• Symptoms of the brain cancer vary but often include wekness, seizures, difficulty walking, and headaches. Other common symptoms are vomiting, nausea, blurry vision, or achange in a person's alertness, mental capacity, memory, speech, or personality. 
• Tests for developing brain cancer involve a history, physical exam, and usually a CT or MRI brain scan; sometimes a brain tissue biopsy is done. 
• Treatment are directed by a team of doctors and are designed for the individual patient: treatment can/may include surgery, radiotherapy, or chemotherapy,often condition. 
• Side effects of treatments range from mild to severe, and patients need to discuss plans with their treatment team members to understand potential side effects and their prognosis. 
• Depending on type of the developing brain cancer and overall health status of  the patients, brain cancer frequently has only a fair to poor prognosis; children have a somewhat better prognosis. 

Symptoms of Brain Cancer

The exact cause of brain cancer is unknown. Brain cancer that originates in the brain is called a primary brain tumor. Not all brain tumor cause symptoms, and some ( such as tumors of the pituitary gland that cause no symptoms) are found mainly after death, with the death not caused by the brain tumor. The symptoms of brain tumor are numerous and not specific to brain tumors, meaning they can be caused by many other illnesses as well. The only way to know for sure what is causing the symptoms is to undergo diagnostic testing. Early symptoms may not occur, if they do, they occur for the following reasons and are listed below:

• The symptoms are usually caused by the tumor pressing on or encroaching on other parts of the brain and keeping them from functioning normally. 
• The symptoms of primary brain cancers are similar in women, men, and children. 
• Some of the symptoms are caused by swelling in brain primarily caused by the tumor or its surrounding inflammation.

Below are most common symptoms:

• Headache 

• Weakness

• Difficulty waking 

• Seizures 

Other nonspecific symptoms and signs include:

• Nausea, vomiting 
• Difficulty in speech
• Altered mental status: changes in concentration, memory, attention, or alertness
• Gradual changes in intellectual or emotional capacity. 

In many people, the onset of these symptoms is very gradual and may be overlooked by both the person with the brain tumor and the person's family members, even for long time periods. However these symptoms appear more rapidly. In some instances, the person acts as if he or she is having a stroke. In some patients, the symptoms be more pronounced if the cancer is located mainly in a specific brain lobe that is usually responsible for certain body functions. For example, the behavioral changes may predominate in frontal-lobe cancers while difficulty with speech or movements may predominate in cancers within the parietal lobe.

Causes of Brain Cancer


Primary brain tumors arise from many types of brain tissue [ for example glial cells, astrocytes, and other brain cell types ]. Metastatic brain cancer is caused by the spread of cancer cells from a body organ to the brain. However the causes for the change from normal cells to cancer cells in both metastatic and primary brain tumors are not fully understood. Data gathered by research scientists show that people with certain risk factors are more likely to develop brain cancer.

Individuals with risk factors like having a job in an oil refinery, handlers of jet fuel or chemicals like benzene, chemists, embalmers, or rubber- industry workers, show higher rates of brain cancer than the general population. Some families have several members with brain cancer, but heredity as a cause for brain tumor has not been proven. Other risk factors such as smoking, radiation exposure, and viral infection (HIV) have been suggested but not proven to cause brain cancer. There is no enough evidence that brain cancer is contagious, caused by head trauma, or caused by cell phone use. Although many lay press and web articles claim that aspartame ( artificial sweetener) caused brain cancer, the FDA maintains that it doesn't cause brain cancer and base their findings on over 100 toxicological and clinical studies regarding the sweetener's safety.

Treatment of Prostate Cancer

Treatment of prostate cancer

Prostate cancer is a disease which only affect men. The prostate cancer begins to grow in the prostate  - a gland in in the male reproductive system.  Deciding on treatment can be difficult, partly because the options for treatment today are too much better than they were 10 years ago but also because not enough reliable data are available on which to base the decisions.  According, scientifically controlled, long term studies are still needed to compare the benefits and risk of the various treatments. To decide on treatment for an individual patient, doctors categorize prostate cancers as organ-confined [localized to the gland], locally advanced [ a large prostate tumor or one that has spread only locally], or metastatic [ spread distantly or widely ]. The treatment options for organ-confined prostate cancer or locally advanced prostate cancer usually include surgery, radiation therapy, hormonal therapy, cryotherapy, combinations of some of these treatments, and watchful waiting. A cure  for metastatic prostate cancer is, unfortunately, unattainable at the present time. The treatment for metastatic prostate cancer, which include chemotherapy and hormonal therapy, therefore, are considered palliative. By definition, the aims of palliative treatments are, at best, to slow the growth of the tumor and relieve the symptoms of the patient. 


Surgery of Prostate cancer

The surgical treatment for prostate cancer is common and referred to as a radical prostatectomy, which the removal of the entire prostate gland. The entire prostate, seminal vesicles, and ampulla of the vas deferens are removed, and the bladder is connected to the membranous urethra to allow free urination.


The radical prostatectomy is the most common treatment for organ confined or localized prostate cancer in the U.S  This operation is currently performed in about 36 percent of patients with organ-confined (localized) prostate cancer.  American Cancer Society estimates a 90 percent cure rate nationwide when the disease is confined to the prostate and the entire gland is removed. The potential complications of radical prostatectomy include the risk of anesthesia,  local bleeding, impotence (loss of sexual function ) in 30 percent to 70 percent of patients, and incontinence (loss of control of urination) in 3 percent to 10 percent of patients.

Great strides have been made in lowering the frequency of the complications of radical prostatectomy. These advances have been accomplished largely through improved anesthesia and surgical techniques. The improved surgical technique, in turn, stem from a better understanding of the key anatomy and physiology of sexual potency and incontinence. Of men who undergo these newer techniques, 98 percent are continent, and 60 percent are able to have an erection.

Radical prostatectomy can be performed by often surgery, laparoscopic surgery, or by robotic surgery [ robotic assisted radical prostatectomy ]. Now a days almost 70 percent of radical prostatectomy surgeries in the U.S are performed using the of the Da Vinci robotic system.  For robot-assisted surgery, five small incisions are made in the abdomen through which the surgeon inserts tube like instruments, including a small camera. This creates a magnifies three-dimensional view of the surgical area. The instruments are attached to a mechanical device, and the surgeon sits at a console to achieve greater precision in surgery. Studies have showed that traditional open prostatectomy and robotic prostatectomy have had similar outcomes related to cancer-free survival rates, urinary continence, and sexual function. However, in terms of blood loss during surgery and pain and recovery after the procedure, robotic surgery has been shown to a significant advantage.

If post-treatment impotence doesn't occur, it can be treated by sildenafil (Viagra) tablets, injection of such medications are alprostadil (Caverject) into the penis, various devices to pump up or stiffen the penis, or a penile prosthesis ( an artificial penis) . Incontinence after treatment often improves with time, special  exercises,and to improve the control of urination. However incontinence requires implanting an artificial sphincter around the urethra. The artificial sphincter is made up of muscle or others material and is designed to control the flow of urine through the urethra.

Transurethral resection of the prostate ( TURP ) involves the removal of a part of the prostate by an instrument inserted through the urethra. It is used as an alternative to prostatectomy in patients with extensive disease or those who aren't fit  to undergo radical prostatectomy to remove tissue that is blocking urine flow. This is often referred to as a channel TURP.

I hope that you will learn more after reading this article about treatment of prostate cancer. 

Prostate Cancer - Causes and Symptoms

 Prostate Cancer

Prostate cancer is a disease which only affects men. Cancer begins to grow in the prostate - gland in the male reproductive system. The prostate is a gland in the male reproductive system. It makes most of the semen that carries sperm. The walnut - sized gland is located beneath the bladder and surrounds the upper part of the urethar, the tube that carries urine from the bladder.

Prostate cancer is a major health concern for American men. Prostate cancer is rare before age 50, and experts believe that most elderly men have traces of it.

In 2013, about 238,500 new cases will be diagnose diagnosed in the U.S.A and about 29,700 will die for it.  African - American men are more likely to get prostate cancer and have the highest death rate. In other parts of the world -- notably Asia, Africa, and Latin America -- prostate cancer is rare.

Prostate cancer , it is usually a very slow growing cancer, often causing no symptoms until it is in an advanced stage. Most men with prostate cancer die of other causes, and many never know that they have the disease. But once prostate cancer begins to grow quickly or spread outside the prostate, it is dangerous. Developing prostate in its early stages [ when it is only found in the prostate gland] can be treated with very good chances for survival. Fortunately, about 85 percent of American men are diagnosed with prostate cancer in an early stage of the disease.

Cancer that has spread beyond the prostate such as lymph nodes, bones, and lungs is not curable, but it may be controlled for many years. Because of the many advances in available treatments, most men whose prostate cancer becomes widespread can expect to live five years or more. Some men with advanced prostate cancer live a normal life and die of another cause like heart disease.

Causes of Prostate Cancer

Prostate cancer, the cause of this cancer is unknown, but the cancer is not thought to be related to benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH). The risk (predisposing) factors for prostate cancer include advancing age, genetics (heredity), hormonal influences, and such environmental factors as toxins, chemicals, and industrial products. The chances of prostate cancer increase with age. Thus, prostate cancer under age 40 is extremely rare, while it is common in men older than 80 years of age. Some studies have suggested that among men over 80 years of age, 50 percent to 80 percent of them may have developing prostate cancer. More than 80 percent of prostate cancers are diagnosed in men older than 65 years of age.

African-American men are 1.6 times more likely than white men to develop prostate cancer. They are also 2.4 times more likely to die from their disease as compared to white men of a similar age. These differences in diagnosis and death rates are, however, more likely to reflect a difference in factors like environmental exposure, lifestyle, diet, and health-seeking behavior rather than any racial susceptibility to prostate cancer. Recent studies indicate that this disparity is progressively decreasing with chances of complete cure in men undergoing treatment for organ-confined prostate cancer [cancer that is limited to within prostate without spread outside the confines of the prostate gland], irrespective of race.

Genetics, as just mentioned, plays a role in risk of a prostate cancer. Prostate cancer is more common among family members of individuals with prostate cancer. This risk may be 2 to 3 times greater than the risk for men without a family history of the disease. Earlier age at diagnosis (<60 years) in a first-degree relative more than one relative also increases the risk for prostate cancer.

Sexual transmitted infections can be the risk factor for developing prostate cancer. Men with a history of sexually transmitted infections have a 1.4 time greater chance of developing prostate cancer as compared men without this history.

Testosterone, the male hormone produced by the testicles, directly stimulates  growth of both normal prostate tissue and prostate cancer cells.  Not surprisingly, therefore, this hormone is thought to be involved in the development and growth of prostate cancer. The important implication of the role of this hormone is that decreasing the level of testosterone should be effective in inhibiting the growth of prostate cancer.


Signs and symptoms 

Prostate cancer frequently does not produce any symptoms until the condition is quite advanced. Often it is diagnosed after treatment is sought for problems with urinary function. Symptoms of prostate cancer are often similar to those of benign(non-cancerous) prostate conditions.

Below are some more common symptoms:

• Pain or difficulty when passing urine
• Decreased force of the urine stream 
• Passing urine more frequently[ especially at night ]
• Blood in the urine 
• Inability to pass urine [ this can occur as the cancer enlarges, blocking the urethra).

It is possible for the cancer cells to spread from the prostate gland to other areas of the body where further tumours  can develop. The most common places for prostate cancer to spread to are the lymph nodes of the pelvis and bones of spine. Spread of the cancer can produce symptoms like lower back pain. 

Diagnosis and Prevention of Lung Cancer

Diagnosis of Lung Cancer 

Physicians use information revealed by symptoms and several other procedures in order to diagnose lung cancer. Common imaging include chest X-rays, bronchoscopy [ a thin tube with a camera on one end], CT scans, PET scans, and MRI scans. Physician will also conduct a physical examination, a chest examination, and  an analysis of blood in the sputum. All of these procedures are designed to detect where the tumor is located and what additional organs may be affected by it. Although the above diagnostic techniques provided important information, extracting cancer cells and looking at them under a microscope is the only absolute way to diagnose lung cancer. This procedure is called a biopsy. If biopsy confirms developing lung cancer, a pathologist will determine whether it is small cell lung cancer or  non small cell lung cancer.

After a diagnosis is made, an oncologist will determine the stage of cancer by finding out how far the cancer has been spread. The stage determines which choices will be available for treatment and informs prognosis. The common cancer staging method is called the TNM system. T(1-4) indicates the size and direct extent of the primary tumar, N(0-3() indicates whether the cancer has metastasized to other organs in the body. A small tumor that has not spread to lymph modes or distant can be staged as ( T1, N0, M0), for example.

For the non small cell lung cancer, TNM description lead to a simpler categorization of stages. These stages are labeled from I to IV, where lower numbers indicate earlier stages where the cancer has spread less. More specifically-

Stage I is when the tumor is found only is one lung and in no lymph nodes.
Stage II is when the cancer has spread to the lymph nodes surrounding the infected lung.
Stage IIIa is when cancer has spread to lymph nodes around the trachea, chest wall, and diaphragm, on the same side as the infected lung.
Stage IIIb is when cancer has spread to lymph nodes on the other lung or in the neck.
Stage IV is when the cancer has spread throughout the rest of the body and other parts of the lungs.

Small cell lung cancer, it has two stages: limited of extensive. In the limited stage, tumor exists in one lung and other organs in the body.

Prevention of Lung cancer

There is no sure way to prevent lung cancer. But you can reduce the risk of lung cancer if you maintain these  tips are below:


1. Do not smoke: If you have never smoked, then do not start. Talk to your children about not smoking so that they can understand how to avoid this one of the most important risk factor for lung cancer. Begin conversations about the dangers of smoking with your children early so that they can know how to react to peer pressure.

2. Stop smoking: Stop smoking now. Quitting reduce of the lung cancer, even if you have smoked for years. Discuss a  doctor about strategies and stop-smoking aids that can help you quit. Options include nicotine replacement products, medications and support groups.

3.Try to  eat a diet full of vegetables and fruits: You have to choose a healthy diet with a variety of fruits and vegetables. Food sources of vitamins in pill form, as that may be harmful. For instance, researchers hoping to reduce the risk of lung cancer in heavy smokers gave them beta carotene supplements. Results showed the supplements actually increased the risk of cancer in smokers.

4. Try to avoid carcinogens at work: Take precautions to protect yourself from exposure to toxic chemicals at work. Follow your employer's precautions. For instance, if you are given a face mask for protection, a;ways were it. Ask your doctor what more you can do to protect your self at work. Your risk of lung damage from workplace carcinogens increases if you smoke.

5. Exercise: Aim for at least 150 a week of moderate aerobic activity or 75 minutes of vigorous aerobic activity. Check with your doctor first if you are not already exercising regularly. Start out slowly and continue adding more activities. Swimming and walking are good choices. Try to add exercise throughout your day - park farther away from work and walk and walk the rest of the way or take the stairs rather than the elevator. Strength training is also important. Try to do strength training exercise at least twice a week.

6. Avoid secondhand smoke: If you live or work with a smoker, urge him or her to quit. At the very least, ask them to smoke outside. Avoid areas where people smoke, such as bars and restaurants, and seek out smoke free option.

Lung Cancer - causes and sympotoms

Lung cancer is the uncontrolled growth of abnormal cells that may start off one or both lungs; usually in the cells that line the air passages. The abnormal cells don't develop into healthy lung tissue, they divide rapidly and form tumors. As tumors become larger and more numerous, they undermine the lung's ability to provide the bloodstream with oxygen. Tumors remain in one place and don't appear to spread are known as "benign tumors". Malignant tumors, the more dangerous ones, spread to other parts of the body either through the bloodstream or the lymphatic system. Metastasis refers to cancer spreading beyond its site of origin to other parts of the body. When cancer spreads it's too much harder to treat successfully.

The primary lung cancer originates in the lungs, while secondary lung cancer starts somewhere else in the body, metastasizes, and reaches the lungs. They are considered as different types of cancers and are not treated in  a same way. According to WHO( World Health Organization), 7.6 million deaths globally each year are caused by cancer, cancer represents 13 percent of all global deaths. According to the National Cancer Institute, by the end of 2012 there will have been 226,160 new lung cancer diagnoses and 160,340 lung cancer related deaths in U.S.A.

Lung Cancer Facts 

• Lung cancer is the number one cause of cancer deaths in both men and women in U.S.A and worldwide. 
• Passive exposure to tobacco smoke can cause lung cancer.
• Cigarette smoking is the principal risk factor for development of lung cancer. 

• The two types of lung cancer, which grow and spread differently, are the small cell lung cancers(SCLC) and non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC). 

• The stage of lung cancer refers to the extent to which the cancer has spread in the body.

• Treatment of lung cancer can involve a combination of surgery, chemotherapy, and radiation therapy and newer experimental methods. 
• The general prognosis of lung cancer is poor, with overall survival rates of about 16 percent at five years.
• Smoking cessation is the most important measure that can prevent the development of lung cancer. 

Causes of lung cancer

Smoking is the main risk factor for developing long cancer and is responsible for more than 80 percent of lung cancers. The longer you have smoked and the more you smoke, the more likely you are to get lung cancer. If you stop smoking before cancer cells develop, lung tissue that has been damaged by smoking will start to repair. An ex-smoker's risk will not be as low as that of a person who never smoked, but over time, their risk will go down. Cigar smoking and pipe smoking are almost as likely  to cause lung cancer  as cigarette smoking. 


Even secondhand smoke, the kind inhaled from nearby smokers, can cause developing lung cancer. Non-smokers who are married to smokers have a 30 percent greater risk of  lung cancer than spouses of non-smokers.

Living in an environment with high air pollution or working with radioactive minerals or asbestos can also increase the risk of cancer.  Research helped us to understand how these risk factors produce certain changes in the DNA of lung cells. These changes cause the cells to grow abnormally and form cancers.

DNA is the genetic material that carries the instructions for nearly everything our cells do. Some genes (parts of our DNA) contain instruction for controlling when cells grow and divide. The risk factors discussed earlier can trigger changes, also called mutations, in these genes that result in cancer. A risk for some types of cancer (e.g. ovarian, colorectal, breast, and several others) can be inherited from parents. Inherited gene mutations are not though to be a cause of very many lung cancers.

Symptoms of Lung Cancer

It is important to report any unusual physical feeling to your doctor. Often, these unusual feelings can be attributed to other causes like bronchitis. But a doctor should check anything that is unusual or worrisome. The signs ans symptoms of lungs cancer can take years to develop and they  may not appear until the disease is advanced.

Symptoms of lung cancer that are in chest:

• Pain in the chest, shoulder, or back unrelated to pain from coughing
• Coughing, especially if it persists or becomes intense 
• A change in color or volume of sputum 
• Shortness of breath 
• Changes in voice 
• Harsh sounds with each breath (stridor)
• Recurrent lung problems, such as pneumonia  or bronchitis 
• Coughing up phlegm or mucus, especially if it is tinged with blood 
• Coughing up blood 

When the original lung cancer has spread, a person may feel symptoms in other places in the body. Common places for lung cancer to spread include other parts of the lungs, lymph nodes, bones, brain, liver, and adrenal glands.

Symptoms of lung cancer that may occur elsewhere in the body:

• Fatigue
• Loss of appetite 
• Muscle wasting 
• Bone or joint pain, headaches
• Neck or facial swelling 
• Bleeding 
• Blood clots 

Breast Cancer

Breast cancer is one kind of cancer that develops from breast cells. Breast cancer usually starts off in the inner lining of milk ducts or the lobules that supply them with milk. A malignant tumor can spread to other parts of the body. Breast cancer that started off in the lobules is known as lobular carcinoma, while one that developed from the ducts is called ductal carcinoma. Breast cancer is the most common in female worldwide. It accounts for 16 percent of all female and 22.9 percent of invasive cancers in women. 18.2 percent of all cancer deaths worldwide, including both males and females, are from breast cancer. Although breast cancer is primarily a disease of women, about 1 percent of breast cancers occur in men.

Breast cancer rates are much higher in developed country compared to developing ones. Actually  there are many reasons for this, with possibly life-expectancy being one of the key factors - breast cancer is more common in elderly women, women in the richest countries live much longer than those in the poorest countries. The different eating habits of females in rich and poor countries are contributory factors, experts believe.

The chance of developing breast cancer for a woman in the United States  over the course of her lifetime is about 1  in 8. The death rates from this much-publicized disease continue to drop with better early detection and constant advancements in treatment. More than 261,000 women are diagnosed with breast cancer each year, according to the American Cancer Society, making it the second most common malignancy in women after skin cancer. While all cancers arise from an uncontrolled growth of abnormal cells, each patient's treatment and prognosis can differ radically depending on her type of breast cancer, how advanced it is and a variety of other factors.

Causes of Breast Cancer:

Many women who develop breast cancer have no risk factors other than age and gender. Gender is the biggest risk because this cancer occur mostly in women. Age is the another critical factor. Breast cancer may occur at any age, though the risk of breast cancer increases with age. The average woman at 30 years of age has one chance in 280 of developing breast cancer in the next 10 years. This chance increases  to one in 70 for a woman 40 years of age, and to one in 40 at 50 years of age. A 60 year old woman has a one in 30 chance of developing breast cancer in the nest 10 years. White women are slightly more likely to develop breast cancer than African-Anerican in the U.S.A.

Hormonal causes of breast cancer

Hormonal influences play a role in the development of breast cancer.

Women who start their periods at an early age [12 or younger] or experience a late menopause [55 or more] have a slightly higher risk of breast cancer. Conversely, being older at the time of the first menstrual period and early menopause tend to protect one from breast cancer.

Using oral contraceptive pill means that a woman has a slightly increased risk of breast cancer than woman who has never used them. This risk appears to decrease and return to normal with time once the pills are stopped.

Having a child before 30 years of age may provide some protection, and having no children may increase the risk of breast cancer.

A large study conducted by the Women's Health Initiative  showed an increased risk of breast cancer in postmenopausal women who were on a combination of estrogen and progesterone for many years. Therefore, women who are considering hormone therapy for menopausal symptoms need to discuss the risk versus the benefits with their health care provider.

Genetic causes of breast cancer

Family history is known to be a risk factor for breast cancer. Both maternal and paternal relatives are important. The risk will be highest if the effective relative developed breast cancer at a young age, had cancer in both breasts, or if she is a close relative. First-degree relatives [mother, daughter, sister] are most important in estimating risk. Several second-degree relatives[grandmother, aunt] with breast cancer may also increase risk. In men breast cancer increases the risk for all his close female relatives. Having relatives with both breast and ovarian cancer also increases a woman's risk of developing breast cancer.

There is great interest in genes linked to breast cancer. About 5 percent to 10 percent of breast cancer are believed to be hereditary, as a result of mutations, changes, in certain genes that are passed along in families.

• BRCA1 and BRCA2 are abnormal genes that,  when inherited, markedly increase risk of beast cancer to a lifetime risk estimated between 40 percent to 85 percent. Woman with these abnormal genes also have an increased likelihood of developing ovarian cancer. Women who have BRCA1gene tend to develop breast cancer at an early age.
• Testing for these genes is expensive and may not be covered by insurance. 
• The issues around testing are complicated. Women who are interested in testing should discuss their risk factors with their health care providers.